Högskolan i Skövde

Virtual Simulation (VS) using computer simulation technologies offer promising opportunities for education and training of emergency professionals. However, the introduction of VS into existing training practices involves challenges that extend beyond technology investment. Organizations need to adjust training practices and develop new competencies for which structured guidance is often lacking. This paper presents the Orchestrated Simulation Method (OSM), a structured practice-based method developed to support Fire and Rescue Services (FRS) organizations in introducing, delivering, and continuously improving VS for Incident Command (IC) training. OSM was developed through action research across eight iterations in four representative Swedish FRS organizations, involving 27 instructors and two VS experts who prepared and conducted training for 418 learners at different IC levels. The focus is on the instructor team’s introduction, management and refinement of VS training, rather than learner performance. The findings suggest that OSM supports the alignment of learning objectives, instructor roles, scenario design, assessment practices, and organizational conditions, thereby helping FRS organizations and instructor teams introduce and manage VS across different IC training contexts. However, further research is needed to assess generalizability.

As emergency response organizations implement Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), the complexity of multi-agency incident scenes increases, requiring targeted training for incident commanders. This study compares two exercise formats: Live Simulation (LS) and Virtual Simulation (VS), using five predefined UAS coordination events to examine their distinctive values and inform exercise design. Data were collected from 30 subjects over 2 days in both formats using a multiple-case study design. VS offered superior controllability and cue salience for complex scenarios, while LS provided authentic use of UAS it was constrained by logistics and unpredictability. Neither environment triggered systematic UAS risk assessment or explicit airspace coordination, revealing training gaps beyond simulation fidelity. Findings highlight the complementary strengths of both formats: VS excels in building foundational skills and ensuring scenario control, while LS fosters equipment familiarity and operational confidence in real-world conditions, providing actionable insights for designing effective UAS-integrated multi-agency exercises.

Purpose: This study investigates patterns of strengths and weaknesses in incident command performance across UK Fire and Rescue Services (FRS) and explores how these insights can support the development of evidence-informed training and development strategies.

Design/methodology/approach: Assessment data from 43 UK FRSs were analysed, incorporating formal exercises, real-incident monitoring and structured training events across four command levels (ICL1–ICL4). Using behavioural markers from the Effective Command framework, the study examined competence profiles and recurring performance themes.

Findings: Strengths were consistently observed in early situational information gathering, while deficits in anticipation, communication and risk assessment were common, particularly among less experienced commanders. Novice officers tended to rely on procedural checklists, whereas experienced commanders demonstrated more intuitive, adaptive decision-making. These patterns indicate the need for differentiated, level-specific training interventions.

Practical implications: Findings show how documented assessment data can strengthen both individual development plans and organisational strategies for enhancing and sustaining command competence.

Originality/value: The study provides empirical evidence on variations in incident command competence and demonstrates how structured assessment data can be used to inform organisational learning and guide training priorities in emergency services.

Virtual simulation is increasingly used in incident commander training for fire and rescue services, offering flexibility, accessibility, and scalability. Its effective adoption depends on the design of training, facilitation, and practice. This paper explores instructors’ experiences with virtual training via a case study of Swedish rescue services. Data from instructor diaries, observations, videos, interviews, and a focus group show that training quality depends on conditions across the process. Instructors stressed pedagogical redesign, clear objectives, structured briefings, and adapting to trainee needs. Teamwork, with defined roles, maintained flow and credibility. Technical skills reduced workload and improved focus on pedagogy. Organizational factors influenced preparation, coordination, and follow-up. The study offers insights for developing collaborative, user-centered virtual training systems that promote sustainable practices.

Public inquiries consistently show that emergency response failures stem less from technical limitations than from breakdowns in command decision making under pressure. Although incident command systems provide structural clarity, the behavioural foundations of reliable command remain insufficiently defined.

This paper proposes a theory informed behavioural framework—the Five Non-Negotiables of command decision making— which organises the core behaviours that underpin each stage of the command cycle. Drawing on 30,843 structured assessments conducted across 43 UK Fire and Rescue Services between 2017 and 2024, we examine five interdependent capabilities: anticipatory situational awareness, adaptive strategy selection, objective based planning, communicative coordination and control, and dynamic review of decisions.

Descriptive cross level patterns reveal persistent vulnerabilities in anticipation, communication, and review across all command tiers. These findings indicate that command reliability depends not on experience alone, but on the consistent enactment of key behavioural capabilities under uncertainty.

Emergency preparedness training in organizations frequently involves simple evacuation drills triggered by fire alarms, limiting the opportunities for broader skill development. Digital technologies, particularly virtual reality (VR), offer promising methods to enhance learning for handling incidents and evacuations. However, implementing VR-based training remains challenging due to unclear integration strategies within organizational practices and a lack of empirical evidence of VR’s effectiveness. This paper explores how VR-based training tools can be implemented in schools to enhance emergency preparedness among students, teachers, and staff. Following a design science research process, data were collected from a questionnaire-based study involving 12 participants and an exploratory study with 13 participants. The questionnaire-based study investigates initial attitudes and willingness to adopt VR training, while the exploratory study assesses the VR prototype’s usability, realism, and perceived effectiveness for emergency preparedness training. Despite a limited sample size and technical constraints of the early prototype, findings indicate strong student enthusiasm for gamified and immersive learning experiences. Teachers emphasized the need for technical and instructional support to regularly utilize VR training modules, while firefighters acknowledged the potential of VR tools, but also highlighted the critical importance of regular drills and professional validation. The relevance of the results of utilizing VR in this context is further discussed in terms of how it can be integrated into university curricula and aligned with other accessible digital preparedness tools.

This long-term (10-year) exploratory case study investigates the implementation of a weakly structured IT system (WSS) in the Swedish agency responsible for safety education. Guided by the analytic lens of the Trifecta model of organizational regulation, we sought to examine the mutually shaping effects of novel IT, the practices, and the organizational rules, while maintaining a focus on the role of ‘ordinary employees’ – the trainers in charge of the education process. The case reveals which elements or actions or the lack of thereof aided or curbed the implementation process. The findings contribute to the ongoing discussion on the nature and meaning of the digital transformation (DT) process, illuminate distinctive features of WSS, and allow the formulation of conjectures on its implementation.

The captivating realm of extended reality technology, encompassing Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR), has rapidly garnered attention within the realms of education and training. While these technologies have found widespread acceptance in domains like surgical training, their integration in other sectors, such as training for Fire and Rescue Services Personnel (FRSP), has been notably slow. This sluggish pace persists despite the several potential benefits expounded in the literature—ranging from cost-effective training to the provision of diverse, complex, and dynamic scenarios, all while providing uniform conditions for training and assessment. Moreover, the promise of safe, environmentally friendly, and remote training possibilities further adds to the values and solutions VR could provide for FRSP training needs.

Motivated by this landscape, the overarching aim of this doctoral project was to delve into the role and utilization of VR, and in the FRSP training context. This exploration unfolds through the design and development of tailored applications for practicebased training using VR technologies, probing the intricacies of implementation, and examining the practical use of VR within this context.  The project is conducted in cooperation with several organizations in the FRSP field of practice: the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB), the Fire and Rescue Service Skaraborg (RS) (former Östra Skaraborg, ROS) in Sweden, and the fire service Corpo de Bombeiros da Policia Militar do Parana Federal (PF) in Brazil. Commercially available VR technologies, selected by the organizations, have been used to develop training scenarios and investigate the utilization of Virtual Simulation (VS), as a novel training format, within firefighter and incident commander training.

The quest for understanding the role of VR within FRSP training spans various dimensions, including its role in relation to existing training methodologies, the requisite technological adjustments for delivering optimal experiences, the alignment of technology with specific training goals, and the exploration of the role of these technologies in supporting trainers to assess trainee performance. Thereby, the 6 doctoral project examines the practical use of VR within the FRSP training context, probing the intricacies of implementation.

The multifaceted nature of the research questions mirrors the complexity of the endeavor, rendering the journey to answer them equally intricate. Comprising five empirical studies conducted in authentic training environments, involving key stakeholders from FRSP organizations, this thesis weaves together empirical insights and theoretical reasoning. The goal is not just to unearth findings but to ground them in theory, providing comprehensive answers to the research questions, and fulfill the overarching aim.

The doctoral thesis is based on three published journal articles and three published scientific conference papers. The doctoral project has additionally disseminated in FRSP-related conferences presentations, publications and journal publications- related conferences. This endeavor strives to contribute meaningfully to the evolving landscape of VR technologies in the crucial domain of FRSP training.

Interessen for virtuell trening, spesielt i sektorer der trening i det virkelige miljøet kan innebære personrisiko, belaste miljøet eller være spesielt ressurskrevende, har økt i takt med den teknologiske utviklingen innen virtuell virkelighet (virtual reality - VR, augmented reality - AR og mixed reality - MR). Likevel, ser vi store forskjeller i anvendelsen av virtuell trening i forskjellige domener. Mens den er for eksempel etablert i standard trening innen kirurgi, og på god vei innen mange industrier for opplæring av arbeidsprosedyrer, ser vi at anvendelsen av virtuell trening for brann- og redningspersonell er svært begrenset. Mange vitenskapelige artikler påpeker de mulige fordelene virtuell trening kan innebære for trening nettopp innen brann og redning, slik som muligheten til å skape varierte, komplekse og dynamiske scenarier, som ville være umulig, for farlig eller for dyrt å øve på i fysiske fasiliteter. I tillegg kommer muligheten for distanstrening, der deltakere kan være på sitt egen kontor hjemme eller på brannstasjonen, og instruktørene på treningsfasiliteten. Sertifisering av personell i forskjellige nivåer kan også forenkles, fordi instruktørene vil kunne skape identiske startbetingelser når de uteksaminerer flere personer individuelt.

Målet for avhandlingen er å oppnå dypere forståelse for anvendelsen av VR, og dets rolle i trening av brann- og redningspersonell. Virtuell trening med kommersielt tilgjengelige verktøy ble gjennomført, i reelle settinger, der de som trente var enten studenter for å bli brannkonstabler, brannkonstabler eller kommende innsatsledere i brannvesenet. Praktiske aspekter rundt bruken av teknologien ble studert, og ikke minst oppfatningen av treningsformatet av lærere (instruktører) og studenter (brannvesenets personell).

Prosjektet ble gjennomført i samarbeid med Myndigheten för samhällsskydd och beredskap (MSB, Sverige), et stort svensk brannvesen (Räddningstjänsten Östra Skaraborg, RS), og et brannvesen i Brazil, (Corpo de Bombeiros da Policia Militar do Parana Federal, PF). Kommersielt tilgjengelige teknologier, som organisasjonene selv valgte, ble brukt for å utvikle treningsscenarier, og undersøke hvordan virtuell simulering (VS) kan bli brukt til trening og eksaminasjon av brannkonstabler og utrykningsledere.

For å øke forståelsen av VR sin mulige rolle innen trening av brann- og redningspersonell, ble ulike aspekter undersøkt. Disse innebærer forholdet til eksisterende treningsmetoder, der scenariene forløper fysisk på dedikerte anlegg. I disse er mange av elementene realistiske (mennesker, brannbiler, gjerne markører), mens andre elementer ikke er det (byggene av betong og stål er allerede utsatt for utallige branner, og dessuten er antallet begrenset, noe som begrenser variasjon). De virtuelle miljøene har fordelen av å kunne tilby veldig mange valgalternativer (representasjoner) av landskaper og bygg, som ser ut som det de representerer, men innebærer andre kompromisser, for eksempel at de bare stimulerer syns- og hørselssans. Nødvendige tekniske tilpasninger for optimal innlevelse ble undersøkt, hvordan teknologi og scenariovalg kunne tilpasses de bestemte læringsmålene, og hvordan instruktører kunne bedømme prestasjonen til den studerende.

Forskningsspørsmålene gjenspeiler kompleksiteten i prosjektet, som spenner fra opplevelser av instruktører og deltagere med teknologien og treningsopplevelsen den genererer, til faktorer som påvirker implementering av ny teknologi i organisasjoner. Prosjektet berører dermed didaktiske, teknologiske og organisatoriske aspekter. Målet er også å forankre observasjoner og resultater i teori, for å oppnå en dypere forståelse av årsakene bak observasjonene og kunne bidra med velfunderte forklaringer av fenomenene som ble observert. Jeg håper at denne avhandlingen vil gi et meningsfylt bidrag til videre implementering av VR teknologier for trening av brann- og rednings-personell.

Avhandlingen sammenfatter fem empiriske studier, gjennomført i autentiske miljø for brann og redningsvesen, med deltagelse av nøkkelpersoner, fra organisasjoner som har ansvar for utdanning og trening av brannmannskaper, der erfaringsbasert innsikt og teoretisk resonnement møtes.

Avhandlingen baserer seg på tre publiserte vitenskapelige artikler, og tre publiserte konferanseartikler. I tillegg har PhD-prosjektet bidratt med tre andre konferanseartikler og fire presentasjoner i faglige konferanser relevante for brann og redningsvesenet.

The emergence of immersive virtual reality (IVR) technologies has raised interest in the use of fire and rescue services (FRS) as a supplement to the established practice-based hot fire-live simulation (HF-LS) training. This is due to features such as time efficiency, portable technologies, and training in scenarios not possible in HF-LS. However, whether IVR provides realistic firefighter training situations has been called into question. Previous studies have revealed differences regarding perceived presence in, and attitudes toward IVR training between novice firefighters (who can only relate to HF-LS training) and experienced firefighters (who can relate to both HF-LS and real fires). In the present study, two groups of experienced full-time employed firefighters, 53 from Brazil and 18 from Sweden tested the same IVR technology. The hypothesis was that differences in national education and training programs and real fire experiences might influence experiences in IVR technology. This study examines the differences and similarities in experienced presence, opinions on whether the graphical representations and tasks performed convey realism, and attitudes toward the IVR-supported training format. Data were collected via systematic post-training presence questionnaires and observations. The results revealed a highly experienced presence and perceived realism of the representations by the participants from both countries. However, attitudes toward using IVR technologies differed. The motivation to utilize currently available IVR training tools was higher in Brazil than in Sweden. This may be partly explained by less frequent HF-LS training opportunities in Brazil. Nevertheless, further research is needed to investigate the training transfer of IVR technologies and how these can better support skills training.

Practice-based training in realistic settings is necessary to acquire and retain competence as a firefighter. Hot-Fire Live Simulation (HF-LS) training in real fire and smoke, using training buildings, vehicles, and equipment, has been the only available practice-based training format available, and therefore accepted despite its limitations. Virtual Reality (VR) development has provided possibilities for supplementing HF-LS training. However, hesitation exists, often because of doubt regarding the represented realism of virtual fire situations. This paper investigates how immersive VR supports cognitive processes and affects fidelity in firefighter training, compared with HF-LS. Data were collected from firefighter recruits, experienced firefighters, and instructors at a Fire and Rescue Service in Sweden, 33 persons in total, during VR and HF-LS training. VR experiences were compared with previous experiences of HF-LS. The results emphasize the current benefits and limitations of VR versus HF-LS training in relation to the support of cognitive processes and the representations’ fidelity.